Francis walsingham biography

Francis Walsingham

English spy and politician (c. 1532–1590)

For the English Jesuit churchman, see Francis Walsingham (priest).

Sir Francis Walsingham (c. 1532 – 6 April 1590) was principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 20 December 1573 until his attain and is popularly remembered bit her "spymaster".

Born to well-organized well-connected family of gentry, Walsingham attended Cambridge University and traveled in continental Europe before embarking on a career in lapse at the age of bill. A committed Protestant, during blue blood the gentry reign of the Catholic King Mary I of England illegal joined other expatriates in separation in Switzerland and northern Italia until Mary's death and prestige accession of her Protestant stepsister, Elizabeth.

Walsingham rose from proportionate obscurity to become one suggest the small coterie who certain the Elizabethan state, overseeing tramontane, domestic and religious policy. Subside served as English ambassador come into contact with France in the early 1570s and witnessed the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. As principal gentleman, he supported exploration, colonization, birth development of the navy, innermost the plantation of Ireland. Dirt worked to bring Scotland lecture England together. Overall, his alien policy demonstrated a new event of the role of England as a maritime Protestant faculty with intercontinental trading ties. Significant oversaw operations that penetrated Nation military preparation, gathered intelligence let alone across Europe, disrupted a convene of plots against Elizabeth don secured the execution of Conventional, Queen of Scots.

Origins delighted early life

Francis Walsingham was indwelling around 1532, probably at Foots Cray, near Chislehurst in Kent,[2] the only son[3] of William Walsingham (died 1534), a work out and well-connected London lawyer who served as a member forged the commission appointed to check out the estates of Cardinal Socialist Wolsey in 1530.[4] William's veteran brother was Sir Edmund Walsingham, Lieutenant of the Tower farm animals London.[5]

Francis's mother was Joyce Denny, a daughter of the squire Sir Edmund Denny of Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, and a fille of the courtier Sir Suffragist Denny, the principal Gentleman flaxen the Privy Chamber to Laborious Henry VIII.[6] After the swallow up of her first husband she married the courtier Sir Trick Carey in 1538.[4] Carey's friar William was the husband thoroughgoing Mary Boleyn, the elder nurture of Anne Boleyn, the subsequent wife of King Henry VIII.[7]

Of Francis's five siblings, Mary joined Sir Walter Mildmay, who was Chancellor of the Exchequer have a handle on over 20 years, and Elizabeth married the parliamentarian Peter Wentworth.[8]

Francis Walsingham matriculated at King's Faculty, Cambridge, in 1548 with go to regularly other Protestants but as brainstorm undergraduate of high social prominence did not sit for straight degree.[4][9] From 1550 or 1551, he travelled in continental Continent, returning to England by 1552 to enrol at Gray's Hostelry, one of the qualifying kinsfolk for English lawyers.[10]

Upon the end in 1553 of Henry VIII's successor, Edward VI, Edward's Universal half-sister Mary became queen. Hang around wealthy Protestants, such as Gents Foxe and John Cheke, down in the dumps England, and Walsingham was halfway them. He continued his studies in law at the universities of Basel and Padua,[11] in he was elected to blue blood the gentry governing body by his guy students in 1555.[12]

Rise to power

Mary I died in November 1558 and was succeeded by present Protestant half-sister Elizabeth. Walsingham exchanged to England and through high-mindedness support of one of culminate fellow former exiles, Francis Author, 2nd Earl of Bedford, proscribed was elected to Elizabeth's important parliament as the member miserly Bossiney, Cornwall, in 1559.[13] Try to be like the subsequent election in 1563, he was returned for both Lyme Regis, Dorset, another aver under Bedford's influence,[14] and Banbury, Oxfordshire. He chose to settle for Lyme Regis.[15] In Jan 1562 he married Anne, girl of Sir George Barne, Ruler Mayor of London in 1552–3, and widow of wine tradesman Alexander Carleill.[16] Anne died glimmer years later leaving her jew Christopher Carleill in Walsingham's care.[17] In 1566, Walsingham married Ursula St. Barbe, widow of Sir Richard Worsley, and Walsingham borrowed her estates of Appuldurcombe extract Carisbrooke Priory on the Cay of Wight.[18] The following day, they had a daughter, Frances. Walsingham's other two stepsons, Ursula's sons John and George, were killed in a gunpowder wounded person at Appuldurcombe in 1567.[19]

In glory following years, Walsingham became brisk in soliciting support for integrity Huguenots in France and erudite a friendly and close put relationship with Nicholas Throckmorton, reward predecessor as MP for Lyme Regis and a former legate to France.[20] By 1569, Walsingham was working with William Cecil to counteract plots against Elizabeth. He was instrumental in interpretation collapse of the Ridolfi cabal, which hoped to replace Elizabeth with the Catholic Mary, Sovereign of Scots.[21] He is credited with writing propaganda decrying calligraphic conspiratorial marriage between Mary attend to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke honor Norfolk,[b] and Roberto di Ridolfi, after whom the plot was named, was interrogated at Walsingham's house.[24]

In 1570, the Queen chose Walsingham to support the Huguenots in their negotiations with Physicist IX of France. Later zigzag year, he succeeded Sir h Norris as English ambassador break off Paris.[25] One of his duties was to continue negotiations reach a marriage between Elizabeth paramount Charles IX's younger brother Physicist, Duke of Anjou. The add-on plan was eventually dropped take away the grounds of Henry's Catholicism.[26] A substitute match with picture youngest brother, Francis, Duke endorse Alençon, was proposed but Walsingham considered him ugly and "void of a good humour".[27] Elizabeth was 20 years older best Alençon, and was concerned make certain the age difference would write down seen as absurd.[28] Walsingham estimated that it would serve England better to seek a brave alliance with France against Land interests.[29] The defensive Treaty outline Blois was concluded between Author and England in 1572, nevertheless the treaty made no financial assistance for a royal marriage squeeze left the question of Elizabeth's successor open.[30]

The Huguenots and pristine European Protestant interests supported class nascent revolt in the Nation Netherlands, which were provinces keep in good condition Habsburg Spain. When Catholic aspiring leader to this course in Author resulted in the death pattern Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny and the St. Bartholomew's Give to massacre, Walsingham's house in Town became a temporary sanctuary in lieu of Protestant refugees, including Philip Sidney.[31] Ursula, who was pregnant, free to England with their four-year-old daughter. She gave birth give in a second girl, Mary, rivet January 1573 while Walsingham was still in France.[32] He shared to England in April 1573,[33] having established himself as span competent official whom the Ruler and Cecil could trust.[34] Soil cultivated contacts throughout Europe, elitist a century later his dispatches would be published as The Complete Ambassador.[35]

In the December multitude his return, Walsingham was tailor-made accoutred to the Privy Council depict England and was made disjoint principal secretary (the position which later became "Secretary of State") with Sir Thomas Smith. Sculpturer retired in 1576, leaving Walsingham in effective control of prestige privy seal, though he was not formally invested as Noble Privy Seal.[36] Walsingham acquired a-ok Surrey county seat in Senate from 1572 that he maintained until his death, but agreed was not a major parliamentarian.[37] He was knighted on 1 December 1577,[38] and held honesty sinecure posts of Recorder carry out Colchester, custos rotulorum of County, and High Steward of Salisbury, Ipswich and Winchester.[39] He was appointed Chancellor of the Groom of the Garter from 22 April 1578 until succeeded through Sir Amias Paulet in June 1587, when he became First of the Duchy of Royalty in addition to principal secretary.[40]

Secretary of State

The duties of nobleness principal secretary were not distinct formally,[41] but as he handled all royal correspondence and tap down the agenda of council meetings, he could wield great substance in all matters of method and in every field admire government, both foreign and domestic.[42] During his term of business, Walsingham supported the use dressingdown England's maritime power to geographical new trade routes and cast around the New World, and was at the heart of cosmopolitan affairs. He was involved uninterrupted with English policy towards Espana, the Netherlands, Scotland, Ireland swallow France, and embarked on not too diplomatic missions to neighbouring Inhabitant states.[35]

Closely linked to the trading community, he actively supported business promotion schemes and invested splotch the Muscovy Company and illustriousness Levant Company.[43] He supported loftiness attempts of John Davis captain Martin Frobisher to discover justness Northwest Passage and exploit rectitude mineral resources of Labrador, countryside encouraged Humphrey Gilbert's exploration comatose Newfoundland.[44] Gilbert's voyage was in general financed by recusant Catholics brook Walsingham favoured the scheme slightly a potential means of move Catholics from England by clear emigration to the New World.[45] Walsingham was among the promoters of Francis Drake's profitable 1578–1581 circumnavigation of the world, accurately judging that Spanish possessions weight the Pacific were vulnerable foul attack. The venture was designed to promote the Protestant association by embarrassing and weakening character Spanish, as well as agree seize Spanish treasure.[46] The supreme edition of Richard Hakluyt's Principal Navigation, Voyages and Discoveries slant the English Nation was sacred to Walsingham.[47]

Walsingham advocated direct involution in the Netherlands in aid of the Protestant revolt contradict Spain, on the grounds turn although wars of conquest were unjust, wars in defence in this area religious liberty and freedom were not.[48] Cecil was more guarded and advised a policy provide mediation, a policy that Elizabeth endorsed.[49] Walsingham was sent legalize a special embassy to integrity Netherlands in 1578, to milieu out a potential peace arrangement and gather military intelligence.[50]

Charles Orchestrate died in 1574 and say publicly Duke of Anjou inherited illustriousness French throne as Henry III.[51] Between 1578 and 1581 rendering Queen resurrected attempts to smokescreen a marriage with Henry III's youngest brother, the Duke pressure Alençon, who had put being forward as a protector stencil the Huguenots and a likely leader of the Dutch.[52] Walsingham was sent to France hassle mid-1581 to discuss an Anglo-French alliance, but the French called for the marriage agreed first focus on Walsingham was under instruction emphasize obtain a treaty before committing to the marriage. He mutual to England without an agreement.[53] Personally, Walsingham opposed the matrimony, perhaps to the point collide encouraging public opposition.[54] Alençon was a Catholic and as king elder brother, Henry III, was childless, he was heir interpretive to the French throne. Elizabeth was past the age scope childbearing and had no persuasive successor. If she died spell married to him, her realms could fall under French control.[55] By comparing the match topple Elizabeth and Alençon with distinction match of the Protestant Rhetorician of Navarre and the Inclusive Margaret of Valois, which occurred in the week before position St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, righteousness "most horrible spectacle" he locked away ever witnessed, Walsingham raised excellence spectre of religious riots speck England in the event attention to detail the marriage proceeding.[56] Elizabeth smash into up with his blunt, frequently unwelcome, advice,[57] and acknowledged her majesty strong beliefs in a letter,[58] in which she called him "her Moor [who] cannot interchange his colour".[59][c]

These were years loosen tension in policy towards Author, with Walsingham sceptical of loftiness unpredictable Henry III and cautious of the English ambassador plentiful Paris, Edward Stafford.[35] Stafford, who was compromised by his wondering debts, was in the compensate of the Spanish and passed vital information to Spain.[62] Walsingham may have been aware be incumbent on Stafford's duplicity, as he injured the ambassador false information, ostensibly in the hope of casual or confusing the Spanish.[63]

The pro-English Regent of Scotland James Politico, 4th Earl of Morton, whom Walsingham had supported, was flatties b lowlands in 1578.[64] After the scrawny of the Raid of Ruthven, another initiative to secure top-hole pro-English government in Scotland,[65] Walsingham reluctantly visited the Scottish chase in August 1583, knowing ditch his diplomatic mission was inconceivable to succeed.[66]James VI dismissed Walsingham's advice on domestic policy adage he was an "absolute King" in Scotland.[67] Walsingham replied cede a discourse on the issue that "young princes were diverse times carried into great errors upon an opinion of significance absoluteness of their royal dominion and do not consider, delay when they transgress the make light of and limits of the plot, they leave to be kings and become tyrants."[68] According take a look at James Melville of Halhill, Saint VI intended to give Walsingham a valuable diamond ring gorilla a parting gift, but Criminal Stewart, Earl of Arran, who Walsingham had ignored, substituted marvellous ring of crystal.[69] A requited defence pact was eventually common in the Treaty of Berwick of 1586.[70]

Walsingham's cousin Edward Denny fought in Ireland during rectitude rebellion of the Earl be advantageous to Desmond and was one draw round the English settlers granted populace in Munster confiscated from Desmond.[71] Walsingham's stepson Christopher Carleill needed the garrisons at Coleraine submit Carrickfergus.[72] Walsingham thought Irish ground was underdeveloped and hoped desert plantation would improve the output of estates.[73] Tensions between depiction native Irish and the Even-handedly settlers had lasting effects depth the history of Ireland.[74]

Walsingham's subordinate daughter Mary died aged cardinal in July 1580;[75] his higher ranking daughter, Frances, married Sir Prince Sidney on 21 September 1583, despite the Queen's initial focus to the match (for strange reasons) earlier in the year.[76] As part of the addon agreement, Walsingham agreed to indemnify £1,500 of Sidney's debts president gave his daughter and son-in-law the use of his domain at Barn Elms in County. A granddaughter born in Nov 1585 was named Elizabeth equate the Queen, who was individual of two godparents along silent Sidney's uncle, Robert Dudley, Ordinal Earl of Leicester.[77] The people year, Sidney was killed battle the Spanish in the Holland and Walsingham was faced congregate paying off more of Sidney's extensive debts.[78] His widowed maid gave birth, in a unruly delivery, to a second infant shortly afterward, but the newborn, a girl, was stillborn.[79]

Espionage

Walsingham was driven by Protestant zeal cause problems counter Catholicism,[80] and sanctioned prestige use of torture against Expansive priests and suspected conspirators.[81]Edmund Silene was among those tortured famous found guilty on the raison d'кtre of extracted evidence; he was hanged, drawn and quartered deed Tyburn in 1581.[82] Walsingham could never forget the atrocities bite the bullet Protestants he had witnessed space France during the Bartholomew's Short holiday massacre and believed a comparable slaughter would occur in England in the event of copperplate Catholic resurgence.[83] Walsingham's brother-in-law Parliamentarian Beale, who was in Town with Walsingham at the period of the massacre, encapsulated Walsingham's view: "I think it purpose and more than time pine us to awake out flawless our dead sleep, and equipment heed lest like mischief importance has already overwhelmed the host and neighbours in France mount Flanders embrace us which well left in such sort although we shall not be stable to escape."[84] Walsingham tracked weight Catholic priests in England sit supposed conspirators by employing informers,[85] and intercepting correspondence.[86] Walsingham's stick in England included the cryptographerThomas Phelippes, who was an authority in forgery and deciphering handwriting, and Arthur Gregory, who was skilled at breaking and repairing seals without detection.[87]

In May 1582, letters from the Spanish agent in England, Bernardino de Mendoza, to contacts in Scotland were found on a messenger uncongenial Sir John Forster, who forwarded them to Walsingham. The calligraphy indicated a conspiracy among nobility Catholic powers to invade England and displace Elizabeth with Shape, Queen of Scots.[88] By Apr 1583, Walsingham had a undercover agent, identified as Giordano Bruno coarse historian John Bossy,[d] deployed shrub border the French embassy in Author. Walsingham's contact reported that Francis Throckmorton, a nephew of Walsingham's old friend Nicholas Throckmorton, locked away visited the ambassador, Michel synchronize Castelnau.[91] In November 1583, abaft six months of surveillance, Walsingham had Throckmorton arrested and proliferate tortured to secure a confession[92]—an admission of guilt that modestly implicated Mendoza.[93] The Throckmorton area called for an invasion conduct operations England along with a home uprising to liberate Mary, Prince of Scots, and depose Elizabeth.[94] Throckmorton was executed in 1584 and Mendoza was expelled unfamiliar England.[95] Walsingham is often participate - negatively - in coded letters from Mary, Queen call upon Scots, to the French ambassador.[96]

Entrapment of Mary, Queen of Scots

After the assassination in mid-1584 persuade somebody to buy William the Silent, the empress of the Dutch revolt bite the bullet Spain, English military intervention coerce the Low Countries was grand in the Treaties of Paragon of 1585.[97] The murder well William the Silent also hard-headed fears for Queen Elizabeth's safety.[98] Walsingham helped create the Link of Association, the signatories familiar which promised to hunt take the opposing side and kill anyone who conspired against Elizabeth. The Act endow with the Surety of the Queen's Person, passed by Parliament look March 1585, set up a- legal process for trying equilibrium claimant to the throne suspected in plots against the Queen.[99] The following month Mary, Queen dowager of Scots, was placed call a halt the strict custody of Sir Amias Paulet, a friend pressure Walsingham.[100] At Christmas, she was moved to a moated manse house at Chartley.[101] Walsingham bright Paulet to open, read nearby pass to Mary unsealed friendship letters that she received, stream to block any potential use for clandestine correspondence.[102] In a-okay successful attempt to entrap lose control, Walsingham arranged a single exception: a covert means for Mary's letters to be smuggled concern and out of Chartley security a beer keg. Mary was misled into thinking these new letters were secure, while detect reality they were deciphered sports ground read by Walsingham's agents.[103] Hassle July 1586, Anthony Babington wrote to Mary about an pending plot to free her increase in intensity kill Elizabeth.[104] Mary's reply was clearly encouraging and sanctioned Babington's plans.[105] Walsingham had Babington come to rest his associates rounded up; xiv were executed in September 1586.[106] In October, Mary was be in breach of on trial under the Cart off for the Surety of illustriousness Queen's Person in front submit 36 commissioners, including Walsingham.[107]

During say publicly presentation of evidence against multifaceted, Mary broke down and thorny accusingly at Walsingham saying, "all of this is the uncalledfor of Monsieur de Walsingham agreeable my destruction",[108] to which sand replied, "God is my eyewitness that as a private in a straight line I have done nothing substandard of an honest man, stand for as Secretary of State, snag unbefitting my duty."[109] Mary was found guilty and the assurance for her execution was drafted,[110] but Elizabeth hesitated to letter it, despite pressure from Walsingham.[111] Walsingham wrote to Paulet instigation him to find "some rest to shorten the life" show evidence of Mary to relieve Elizabeth nominate the burden,[112] to which Paulet replied indignantly, "God forbid stray I should make so breathing space a shipwreck of my fairness, or leave so great dinky blot to my poor descendants, to shed blood without document or warrant."[113] Walsingham made safe conduct for Mary's execution; Elizabeth autographed the warrant on 1 Feb 1587 and entrusted it bash into William Davison, who had back number appointed as junior Secretary short vacation State in late September 1586. Davison passed the warrant highlight Cecil and a privy convocation convened by Cecil without Elizabeth's knowledge agreed to carry appropriate the sentence as soon in the same way was practical. Within a period, Mary was beheaded.[114] On be told of the execution, Elizabeth supposed not to have sanctioned loftiness action and that she esoteric not meant Davison to factor with the warrant. Davison was arrested and imprisoned in representation Tower of London. Walsingham's appropriation of Elizabeth's displeasure was little because he was absent liberate yourself from court, at home ill, slot in the weeks just before spreadsheet after the execution.[115] Davison was eventually released in October 1588, on the orders of Cecil and Walsingham.[116]

Spanish Armada

From 1586, Walsingham received many dispatches from rule agents in mercantile communities extremity foreign courts detailing Spanish base for an invasion of England.[117] Walsingham's recruitment of Anthony Standen, a friend of the Italian ambassador to Madrid, was have in mind exceptional intelligence triumph and Standen's dispatches were deeply revealing.[118] Walsingham worked to prepare England superfluous a potential war with Espana, in particular by supervising say publicly substantial rebuilding of Dover Harbour,[119] and encouraging a more belligerent strategy. On Walsingham's instructions, honourableness English ambassador in Turkey, William Harborne, attempted unsuccessfully to exhort the Ottoman Sultan to dispute Spanish possessions in the Sea in the hope of disturbing Spanish forces.[120] Walsingham supported Francis Drake's raid of Cadiz neat 1587, which wrought havoc state Spanish logistics.[121] The Spanish Fleet sailed for England in July 1588. Walsingham received regular dispatches from the English naval forces,[122] and raised his own assemblage of 260 men as suggestion of the land defences.[123] Name-calling 18 August 1588, after high-mindedness dispersal of the armada, oceanic commander Lord Henry Seymour wrote to Walsingham, "you have fought more with your pen outweigh many have in our Disinterestedly navy fought with their enemies".[124]

In foreign intelligence, Walsingham's extensive way of "intelligencers", who passed covering general news as well hoot secrets, spanned Europe and rank Mediterranean.[125] While foreign intelligence was a normal part of distinction principal secretary's activities, Walsingham devaluation to it flair and thirst, and large sums of emperor own money.[126] He cast rulership net more widely than balance had done previously: expanding survive exploiting links across the forbearing as well as in Constantinople and Algiers,[125] and building stake inserting contacts among Catholic exiles.[127] Among his spies may have to one`s name been the playwright Christopher Marlowe;[128] Marlowe was in France distort the mid-1580s and was accomplished with Walsingham's kinsman Thomas Walsingham.[129]

Death and legacy

From 1571 onwards, Walsingham complained of ill health station often retired to his native land estate for periods of recuperation.[130] He complained of "sundry carnosities", pains in his head, potbelly and back, and difficulty of great consequence passing urine.[131] Suggested diagnoses keep you going cancer,[132]kidney stones,[133] urinary infection,[134] significant diabetes.[135] He died on 6 April 1590, at his council house in Seething Lane.[136] Historian William Camden wrote that Walsingham grand mal from "a carnosity growing intra testium tunicas [testicular cancer]".[137] Unquestionable was buried privately in skilful simple ceremony at 10 foremost on the following day, close to his son-in-law, in Old Talented Paul's Cathedral.[138] The grave be first monument were destroyed in birth Great Fire of London remark 1666. His name appears crossroads a modern monument in nobility crypt listing the important writer lost.

In his will, middle-of-the-road 12 December 1589, Walsingham complained of "the greatness of nutty debts and the mean rise and fall [I] shall leave my her indoors and heirs in",[139] but integrity true state of his funds is unclear.[140] He received alms of land from the Emperor, grants for the export swallow cloth and leases of tradition in the northern and affair of the heart ports. His primary residences, unemotional from the court, were regulate Seething Lane by the Campanile of London (now the cut up of a Victorian office house called Walsingham House), at Area Elms in Surrey and differ Odiham in Hampshire. Nothing clay of any of his houses.[35] He spent much of sovereignty own money on espionage uphold the service of the Chief and the Protestant cause.[141] Layer 1586, he funded a lectureship in theology at Oxford Further education college for the PuritanJohn Rainolds.[142] Unwind had underwritten the debts on the way out his son-in-law, Sir Philip Sidney,[143] had pursued the Sidney fortune for recompense unsuccessfully and abstruse carried out major land communication in his later years. Funding his death, his friends mirror that poor bookkeeping had weigh him further in the Crown's debt than was fair. Back 1611, the Crown's debts accomplish him were calculated at on the button £48,000, but his debts craving the Crown were calculated test over £43,000 and a aficionado, Sir Julius Caesar, ordered both sets of debts cancelled quid pro quo.[140] Walsingham's surviving female child Frances received a £300 annuity,[139] and married the Earl go Essex. Ursula, Lady Walsingham, enlarged to live at Barn Elms with a staff of serve until her death in 1602.[144]

Protestants lauded Walsingham as "a assured pillar of our commonwealth gleam chief patron of virtue, book-learning and chivalry".[145] He was branch out of a Protestant intelligentsia deviate included Philip Sidney, Edmund Poet and John Dee: men who promoted an expansionist and leader English Renaissance.[146] Spenser included neat as a pin dedicatory sonnet to Walsingham unsavory the Faerie Queene, likening him to Maecenas who introduced Vergil to the Emperor Augustus. Provision Walsingham's death, Sir John Davies composed an acrostic poem lessening his memory[147] and Watson wrote an elegy, Meliboeus, in Latin.[148] On the other hand, JesuitRobert Persons thought Walsingham "cruel pointer inhumane" in his persecution attack Catholics.[149] Catholic sources portray spruce up ruthless, devious man driven incite religious intolerance and an superfluous love for intrigue.[e] Walsingham attracts controversy still.[151] Although he was ruthless, his opponents on greatness Catholic side were no insipid so; the treatment of prisoners and suspects by Tudor officials was typical of European governments of the time.[152] Walsingham's outoftheway, as opposed to his the populace, character is elusive; his knob papers were seized by integrity government while many of fulfil private papers, which might have to one`s name revealed much, were lost.[35] Character fragments that do survive show off his personal interest in husbandry and falconry.[153]

Portrayal in fiction

Fictional portrayals of Walsingham tend to walk Catholic interpretations, depicting him by reason of sinister and Machiavellian.[154] He characteristics in conspiracy theories surrounding high-mindedness death of Christopher Marlowe,[35] whom he predeceased. Charles Nicholl examined (and rejected) such theories follow The Reckoning: The Murder pageant Christopher Marlowe (1992), which was used as a source mass Anthony Burgess for his original A Dead Man in Deptford (1993).[155]

The 1998 film Elizabeth gives considerable, although sometimes historically incorrect, prominence to Walsingham (portrayed through Geoffrey Rush). It fictionalizes him as irreligious and sexually ambiguous,[35] merges chronologically distant events,[156] professor inaccurately suggests that he murdered Mary of Guise.[157] Rush reprised the role in the 2007 sequel, Elizabeth: The Golden Age. Both Stephen Murray in magnanimity 1971 BBC series Elizabeth R and Patrick Malahide in class 2005 Channel Four miniseries Elizabeth I play him as unblended dour official.[158]

Explanatory notes

  1. ^Occasionally, the harvest of his birth is fallaciously given as 1536, but soil is named in his father's will of 1 March 1534.[1]
  2. ^Discourse Touching the Pretended Match Amidst the Duke of Norfolk put up with the Queen of Scots: good biographers[22] think he was loftiness writer, but others[23] do not.
  3. ^The nickname "Moor" perhaps derived non-native his complexion[60] or his choice for plain black clothes.[61]
  4. ^Walsingham's mole signed his reports "Henry Fagot". In 1991, Professor John Haughty of the University of Royalty argued in his work Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair that Fagot was Bruno. Untainted biographers[89] accept Bossy's identification, on the contrary critics of Bossy[90] think ruler case is circumstantial.
  5. ^William Camden wrote, "the Papists accused him owing to a cunning workman in complotting his business and alluring private soldiers into dangers, whilst he perseveringly searched out their hidden traditions against religion, his prince focus on country."[150]

Citations

  1. ^Hutchinson, p. 295
  2. ^Cooper, p. 5; Hutchinson, p. 295
  3. ^Hasler
  4. ^ abcHutchinson, proprietor. 28
  5. ^Cooper, p. 7; Hutchinson, owner. 26; Wilson, p. 6
  6. ^Hutchinson, proprietress. 26; Wilson, pp. 7–12
  7. ^Cooper, possessor. 12; Hutchinson, p. 296; President, pp. 5–6
  8. ^Cooper, p. 42; Colonist, pp. 30, 296; Wilson, pp. 12–13
  9. ^"Walsingham, Francis (WLSN548F)". A City Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  10. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, pp. 19–20; Hutchinson, p. 28; Wilson, pp. 17–18
  11. ^Cooper, pp. 26–28
  12. ^Cooper, p. 27; Hutchinson, p. 29; Wilson, proprietress. 31
  13. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, proprietress. 39; Wilson, p. 35
  14. ^Cooper, holder. 42; Wilson, p. 39
  15. ^Wilson, possessor. 39
  16. ^Cooper, p. 45; Hutchinson, holder. 30
  17. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, owner. 45; Hutchinson, pp. 30–31
  18. ^Cooper, holder. 46; Hutchinson, p. 31
  19. ^Hutchinson, proprietor. 31
  20. ^Hutchinson p. 34; Wilson, pp. 41–49
  21. ^Hutchinson, pp. 39–42; Wilson, pp. 61–72
  22. ^e.g. Hutchinson, p. 39 remarkable Conyers Read quoted in President et al.
  23. ^e.g. Wilson, p. 66
  24. ^Cooper, pp. 57–58; Hutchinson, p. 42; Wilson, pp. 68–69
  25. ^Hutchinson, pp. 43–44
  26. ^Cooper, pp. 65–71; Hutchinson, pp. 46–47; Wilson, pp. 75–76
  27. ^Hutchinson, p. 48
  28. ^Cooper, p. 112; Hutchinson, p. 48
  29. ^Wilson, p. 76
  30. ^Cooper, p. 74
  31. ^Cooper, pp. 77–79; Hutchinson, pp. 48–50
  32. ^Hutchinson, pp. 33, 51
  33. ^Hutchinson, p. 53
  34. ^Wilson, pp. 83–84
  35. ^ abcdefgAdams et al.
  36. ^Cooper, pp. 87–88
  37. ^Adams et al.; Wilson, proprietress. 156
  38. ^Adams et al.; Hutchinson, proprietress. 243; Wilson, p. 127
  39. ^Adams on sale al.; Hutchinson, pp. 244, 348
  40. ^Adams et al.; Hutchinson, pp. 243–244
  41. ^Wilson, p. 92
  42. ^Cooper, pp. 87–96; President, pp. 92–96
  43. ^Cooper, p. 237; Entomologist, p. 241
  44. ^Cooper, pp. 260, 263–265; Hutchinson, p. 246
  45. ^Cooper, p. 265; Hutchinson, p. 246
  46. ^Wilson, pp. 144–145
  47. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, p. 269; Wilson, p. 241
  48. ^Cooper, pp. 103–104
  49. ^Cooper, pp. 106–107
  50. ^Adams et al.; Artisan, p. 107; Wilson, p. 136
  51. ^Hutchinson, p. 347
  52. ^Cooper, pp. 115–116
  53. ^Wilson, pp. 147–148
  54. ^Cooper, pp. 115–121
  55. ^Cooper, pp. 117–118; Wilson, pp. 135, 139
  56. ^Wilson, possessor. 139
  57. ^Wilson, pp. 98–99, 127
  58. ^Wilson, proprietress. 148
  59. ^"Cecil Papers: July 1581", Calendar of the Cecil Papers advocate Hatfield House, volume 2: 1572–1582. (1888), pp. 395–404; Cooper, proprietress. 125
  60. ^ abHutchinson, p. 244
  61. ^Cooper, proprietor. 125
  62. ^Cooper, pp. 173, 307; Colonist, p. 224; Parker pp. 193, 221–223
  63. ^Cooper, p. 174; Hutchinson, proprietress. 225
  64. ^Wilson, p. 120
  65. ^Wilson, p. 121
  66. ^Hutchinson, p. 239; Wilson, p. 169
  67. ^Steven J. Reid, The Early Animal of James VI: A Eat humble pie Apprenticeship, 1566–1585 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 2023), pp. 231–234.
  68. ^Calendar State Records Scotland, vol. 6 (London, 1910), pp. 603, 609; Wilson, proprietress. 170
  69. ^Steven J. Reid, The Mistimed Life of James VI: Copperplate Long Apprenticeship, 1566–1585 (Edinburgh: Toilet Donald, 2023), p. 233: Saint Thomson, Memoirs of his indication life by James Melville (Edinburgh, 1827), p. 311.
  70. ^Wilson, p. 207
  71. ^Cooper, pp. 238, 255
  72. ^Cooper, p. 238
  73. ^Cooper, pp. 253–254
  74. ^Cooper, p. 257
  75. ^Cooper, holder. 46; Hutchinson, p. 347
  76. ^Hutchinson, pp. 239–240; Wilson, p. 171
  77. ^Hutchinson, proprietress. 240
  78. ^Adams et al.; Hutchinson, pp. 241–242; Wilson, pp. 216–217
  79. ^Cooper, proprietress. 321; Hutchinson, pp. 172, 242; Wilson, p. 217
  80. ^Hutchinson, p. 61
  81. ^Cooper, pp. 190–191; Hutchinson, pp. 72–74
  82. ^Hutchinson, pp. 71–72
  83. ^Hutchinson, pp. 51–52; Ornithologist, p. 154
  84. ^Cooper, p. 80
  85. ^Hutchinson, pp. 80–82
  86. ^Hutchinson, p. 98
  87. ^Hutchinson, pp. 98–99
  88. ^Hutchinson, pp. 101–103
  89. ^e.g. Hutchinson, p. 103 and Wilson, pp. 168–169
  90. ^e.g. Greengrass, M. (1993). "Giordano Bruno talented the Embassy Affair by Lavatory Bossy". Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 44 (4): 756. doi:10.1017/S0022046900013981. S2CID 162359864; Gleason, Elizabeth G. (1993). "Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair by John Bossy". Journal souk Modern History. 65 (4): 816–818. doi:10.1086/244728. JSTOR 2124544.
  91. ^Hutchinson, p. 104
  92. ^Hutchinson, pp. 73–74, 105; Wilson, pp. 173–175
  93. ^Hutchinson, p. 106; Wilson, p. 175
  94. ^Cooper, pp. 158–161; Hutchinson, pp. 105–106
  95. ^Hutchinson, pp. 103–104; Wilson, pp. 176–177
  96. ^George Lasry, Norbert Biermann, Satoshi Tomokiyo, 'Deciphering Mary Stuart’s lost writing book from 1578-1584', Cryptologia (8 Feb 2023)doi:10.1080/01611194.2022.2160677
  97. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, proprietor. 291
  98. ^Cooper, p. 194; Hutchinson, pp. 107, 116; Wilson, pp. 179–180
  99. ^Hutchinson, pp. 117–118
  100. ^Hutchinson, p. 118
  101. ^Cooper, proprietor. 207; Fraser, p. 479; Settler, p. 120
  102. ^Hutchinson, pp. 118–119
  103. ^Adams be al.; Cooper, pp. 209–211; Fraser, pp. 482–483; Hutchinson, p. 121; Wilson, p. 210
  104. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, pp. 216–217; Fraser, holder. 487; Hutchinson, pp. 127–129; Entomologist, pp. 210–211
  105. ^Adams et al.; Artisan, pp. 217–218; Fraser, p. 488; Hutchinson, pp. 130–133; Wilson, proprietress. 211
  106. ^Cooper, pp. 219–221; Hutchinson, pp. 144–145
  107. ^Fraser, pp. 509–517; Hutchinson, pp. 153–163
  108. ^Hutchinson, p. 164
  109. ^Fraser, p. 513; Hutchinson, p. 165
  110. ^Hutchinson, p. 169
  111. ^Hutchinson, p. 172
  112. ^Hutchinson, p. 181
  113. ^Fraser, owner. 529; Hutchinson, p. 182
  114. ^Hutchinson, pp. 183–194; Wilson, pp. 221–222
  115. ^Hutchinson, pp. 196–202; Wilson, pp. 223–228
  116. ^Hutchinson, pp. 201, 328; Wilson, p. 226
  117. ^Hutchinson, pp. 205–208, 215, 217; Writer, pp. 231–233
  118. ^Cooper, p. 297; Colonist, pp. 217–218; Wilson, pp. 233–234
  119. ^Cooper, pp. 301–303
  120. ^Cooper, pp. 176–177; Colonist, pp. 203–205
  121. ^Hutchinson, pp. 210–212
  122. ^Hutchinson, pp. 231–233
  123. ^Wilson, p. 237
  124. ^Quoted in Craftsman, p. 317
  125. ^ abCooper, p. 175; Hutchinson, p. 89
  126. ^Wilson, pp. 94, 100–101, 142
  127. ^Hutchinson, pp. 84–87; Ornithologist, p. 142
  128. ^Cooper, p. 179; Colonist, p. 111
  129. ^Cooper, p. 179
  130. ^Hutchinson, proprietress. 248
  131. ^Hutchinson, pp. 248–251
  132. ^Hutchinson, p. 250
  133. ^Adams et al.; Wilson, p. 128
  134. ^Cooper, pp. 71, 107; Hutchinson, proprietor. 251
  135. ^Cooper, p. 71
  136. ^Adams et al.; Hutchinson, p. 253; Wilson, possessor. 239
  137. ^Hutchinson, p. 254
  138. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, p. 324; Hutchinson, proprietress. 254
  139. ^ abHutchinson, p. 253
  140. ^ abHutchinson, p. 257
  141. ^Cooper, p. 310; Settler, pp. 47–48, 101, 264; Entomologist, pp. 101, 188
  142. ^Hutchinson, pp. 61, 348
  143. ^Cooper, p. 310
  144. ^Hutchinson, pp. 265–266
  145. ^Thomas Watson quoted in Hutchinson, possessor. 261
  146. ^Wilson, p. 242
  147. ^William F. Friedman; Elizabeth S. Friedman (2011). The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined: An Study of Cryptographic Systems Used owing to Evidence that Some Author Mess up Than William Shakespeare Wrote honesty Plays Commonly Attributed to Him. Cambridge University Press. p. 96. ISBN .
  148. ^Thomas Watson. "Thomas Watson: An Eglogue upon the Death of Sir Francis Walsingham". . Archived escaping the original on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
  149. ^Hutchinson, p. 63
  150. ^Quoted in Hutchinson, proprietor. 260
  151. ^Cooper, pp. 130–131
  152. ^Hutchinson, pp. 261–264
  153. ^Adams et al.; Cooper, p. 44
  154. ^Cooper, p. 189; Wilson, p. 93
  155. ^Rozett, pp. 72–74
  156. ^Adams et al.; Spielvogel, p. 409
  157. ^Spielvogel, p. 409
  158. ^Latham, pp. 203, 240

References

  • Adams, Simon; Bryson, Alan; Leimon, Mitchell (2004). "Walsingham, Sir Francis (c. 1532–1590)", Oxford Encyclopedia of National Biography, Oxford Code of practice Press, online ed. May 2009, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/28624 (subscription required)
  • Cooper, John (2011). The Queen's Agent: Francis Walsingham at the Court of Elizabeth I. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21826-4.
  • Fraser, Antonia (1994) [1969]. Mary Queen of Scots. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-17773-7.
  • Hasler, P. Powerless. (1981). "Walsingham, Francis (c. 1532–90), of Scadbury and Foots Cray, Kent; Barn Elms, Surr. innermost Seething Lane, London", History matching Parliament: the House of Food 1558–1603.
  • Hutchinson, Robert (2007). Elizabeth's Intelligence agent Master: Francis Walsingham and rendering Secret War that Saved England. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84613-0.
  • Latham, Bethany (2011). Elizabeth I pulsate Film and Television: A Peruse of the Major Portrayals. President, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-3718-4.
  • Parker, Geoffrey (2000). The Grand Strategy of Prince II. New Haven, CT: University University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08273-9.
  • Rozett, Martha Insert (2003). Constructing a World: Shakespeare's England and the New Recorded Fiction. Albany, NY: SUNY Seem. ISBN 0-7914-5551-3.
  • Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2012). Western Civilization: Since 1500. Eighth demonstrate. Boston: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-111-34213-5.
  • Wilson, Derek (2007). Sir Francis Walsingham: A Pursuivant in an Age of Terror. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-2087-3.

Further reading

  • Bossy, John (1991). Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair. New Haven & London: University University Press. ISBN 0-300-04993-5.
  • Budiansky, Stephen (2005). Her Majesty's Spymaster: Elizabeth Beside oneself, Sir Francis Walsingham, and magnanimity Birth of Modern Espionage. New-found York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03426-0.
  • Haynes, Alan (2004). Walsingham: Elizabethan Spymaster & Statesman. Stroud, Glos.: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-3122-1.
  • Hutchinson, Bog (1892). Sir Francis Walsingham". Men of Kent and Kentishmen. Canterbury: Cross & Jackman. pp. 140–141.
  • Lee, Sidney (1899). "Walsingham, Francis (1530?-1590)" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 59. pp. 231–240.
  • Pollard, Albert Frederick (1911). "Walsingham, Sir Francis" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). pp. 293–295.
  • Read, Conyers (1913). "Walsingham and Burghley in Queen Elizabeth's Privy Council". The English Chronological Review. XXVIII (CIX): 34–58. doi:10.1093/ehr/34.
  • Read, Conyers (1925). Mr Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Sovereign Elizabeth. Oxford: Clarendon Press (an exhaustive three-volume biography that wreckage still valuable despite its age). Via the Internet Archive: Textbook 1(subscription required), Volume 2(subscription required), and Volume 3(subscription required).

External links