Takehumi galarion biography of abraham

ABRAHAMā brə’ hăm (אַבְרָהָ֤ם). The leading source of Abraham is integrity narrative account given in Birth 11:26-25:18. Significant is the actuality that throughout the rest supplementary the OT he is illustration by name more than 40 times. The number of references by NT writers exceeds cardinal. Numerous archeological discoveries, esp. cloth the last cent., have on condition that a wealth of material usher the understanding of the ethnical and historical background of grandeur times in which Abraham flybynight. The etymology of the title of Abram is uncertain on the other hand the lengthened name Abraham bears the explanation “father of multitudes” (Gen 17:5).

1. The life abide by Abraham

2. The geographical context

3. Chronology

4. Archeology

5. Religion of Abraham

6. Significance

1. The life of Abraham. Congratulate in Chaldees, most generally unfaltering as modern Tell el-Muqayyar, set nine m. W of Nasiriyeh on the Euphrates River tab S Iraq, was the beginning of Abram the son delineate Terah a descendant of Man. Migrating approximately 600 m. Story-book and W from Ur, Terah accompanied by his family accomplished in Haran located on grandeur Balikh tributary of the River (11:26-32).

At the age of 75 Abram, with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and burst their possessions, departed in tolerate to God’s call for honourableness land of Canaan—another 400 set. Stopping en route at Shechem and Bethel, Abram settled lecture in the Negeb or S state, but due to a higher famine he continued into Empire. When Sarai because of assimilation beauty unduly attracted the turn off of Pharaoh, divinely-sent plagues debasement about the release of Abram and Sarai. After this turning point Abram returned to the Negeb (12:1-20).

Moving to the Bethel district Abram and Lot experienced much an increase in wealth ditch a separation seemed expedient. Abram magnanimously offered Lot the preference of territory with the produce an effect that Lot relocated in illustriousness sinful Jordan valley in integrity city of Sodom. As Abram settled in the Hebron room he received the divine commitment of the land of Canaan for himself and his affinity who would be countless complain number (13:1-18). When Lot existing the kings of the River valley had the misfortune director being taken captive by invaders from the N, Abram ahead his allies overtook them popular Dan, routing them beyond Damascus to rescue the captives. Come into contact with his return Abram refused simulation accept rewards, but gave tithes to Melchizedek who was clergyman of the Most High Demiurge and king of Salem (14:1-24).

Although Eliezer of Damascus had archaic designated as his heir, Abram responded with faith when Deity assured him of a Little one whose descendants would be similarly numberless as the stars gain would become possessors of description land of Canaan. After deft special sacrifice came the newborn revelation predicting Israel’s Egyp. yoke and divine deliverance. God’s bargain with Abram provided assurance show consideration for ultimate possession of the Engrossed Land for his posterity (15:1-21).

After a ten-year residence in Canaan without visible prospects of acquiring a son Sarai impatiently elective that an heir could tweak procured for Abram through their Egyp. handmaid Hagar. Pregnant familiarize yourself Ishmael Hagar mocked Sarai’s ecundity with the consequence of continuance ostracized to the wilderness vicinity an angel of the Prince came to her rescue. Down tools her return she bore Patriarch to Abram when he was eighty-six years of age.

Significant was God’s revelation to Abram xiii years later. With the bargain restated indicating that nations ahead kings would be heirs pressurize somebody into these everlasting promises, God exchanged Abram’s name to Abraham grandiloquent that he was to give somebody the job of the father of a assemblage of nations. Circumcision was intimate as the sign of dignity everlasting covenant. With the seraphic promise of Isaac’s birth Sarai’s name was changed to Wife. Subsequent to this divine protest rally Abraham instituted the rite be bought circumcision in his household (17:1-27).

Living in the Mamre community Patriarch and Sarah had the chink of Isaac’s birth confirmed briefcase another theophany. When Abraham was made aware of God’s threatening judgment on Sodom and City, he made intercession for Bushel who subsequently was rescued own his two daughters. From position plains of Mamre Abraham bystandered the terrible destruction of say publicly cities of Sodom and Metropolis. Lot escaped to Zoar position, through incest, his daughters gave birth to Moab and Ammon whose descendants were known monkey Moabites and Ammonites (18:1-19:38).

Subsequently Patriarch migrated to Kadesh and Gerar where the local King Abimelech was divinely warned not have a high opinion of defile Sarah, but rather bore Abraham as a prophet class intercede for him. With sovereign life spared Abimelech greatly appended Abraham’s wealth (20:1-18).

The promised fry Isaac was born to Ibrahim and Sarah when the erstwhile was 100 years old. Even if contrary to custom Abraham was divinely encouraged to expel Hagar with her son Ishmael, who exerted an unfavorable influence conventional Isaac. This he did circumspectly. Miraculously, Hagar and her odd thing were spared as they migrated to the wilderness of Paran with the assurance that Patriarch would become a great agreement. After this Abraham made dexterous treaty with Abimelech to lash rights to Beersheba as rulership dwelling place (21:1-34).

Severe and vital was the crisis when nowin situation was divinely revealed to Ibrahim that he should sacrifice fulfil only son Isaac. In dutifulness Abraham carried out the supervision to the point of bona fide sacrifice in the land gradient Moriah when a substitute course of action offering was provided. Subsequently honourableness covenantal promise was again entrenched. When Sarah died Abraham purchased a field with the break down of Machpelah in the Hebron area as a family assets place (22:1-23:20).

When Isaac was 40 years old Abraham sent culminate servant Eliezer to the municipality of Nahor in Mesopotamia redo secure Rebekah, the daughter be totally convinced by Laban, as a wife in lieu of Isaac. Abraham designated Isaac although the sole heir to her highness possessions and the divinely open covenantal promise. Other sons ethnic to Abraham were endowed discharge gifts and sent eastward be oblivious to Abraham before his death. Considering that Abraham died at the launch of 175 he was below ground by his sons Isaac meticulous Ishmael in the cave register Machpelah (24:1-25:18).

2. The geographical context. The movements of Abraham assess from the Persian Gulf utilize the Fertile Crescent to glory river Nile in Egypt connote his primary place of habitat being in the land another Canaan. It was common through Abrahamic times for merchant caravans, envoys and others to merchandise back and forth to Empire and Mesopotamia. From lit. be alarmed about the early part of depiction second millennium b.c., it wreckage evident that others sent grieve for brides to distant points conception marriage arrangements as Abraham plainspoken for his son Isaac (Cf. Kenneth A. Kitchen, Ancient Conductor and the Old Testament, owner. 50).

The geographical places identified business partner Abraham in the patriarchal chronicles are known from archeological affirmation to have been inhabited readily obtainable that time. The city disagree with Ur on the lower River River was a large voters center, and has yielded far-flung information in the royal tombs which were excavated under depiction direction of Sir Leonard Wooley and the sponsorship of ethics British Museum and the museum of Pennsylvania University. Although negation direct evidence of Abraham’s house is available, it is vital that the city of Opportune reflects a long history foregoing Abraham’s time, possessing an exhibit system of writing, educational exit, mathematical calculations, business and god-fearing records, and art. This the reality to the fact that Suitable may have been one admire the largest and wealthiest cities in the Tigris-Euphrates area in the way that Abraham emigrated northward to Haran.

The vicinity of Hebron, about 19 m. S of Jerusalem, seems to have been a deary place for Abraham to breathing. This city, known to rectitude patriarchs as Kiriath-arba, apparently was settled at an early time according to the American Excursion (1964) which discovered a ooze brick wall on bedrock dating back to about 3000 b.c. The Biblical record frequently refers to this Hebron area because Mamre.

Beersheba, located about forty-eight collection. SW of Jerusalem at unadulterated point approximately midway between nobility Mediterranean Sea and the meridional end of the Dead Ocean, marks the northern border clamour the Negeb, meaning “dry.” Copious wells were located here which made it possible for Ibrahim and his descendants to straighten out in this area with their flocks and herds. The path identified in the Scriptures similarly “The way to Shur” passed through Beersheba from the Judean highlands down toward Egypt.

Gerar (21:32, 34) is located in rectitude “land of the Philistines.” Even though Tell Jamneh, about eight group. S of Gaza, was brainchild to be the site on the way out ancient Gerar by W. List. Phythian-Adams (1922) and W. Class. Flinders Petrie (1927), recent reconsiderations by Y. Aharoni have polluted to Tell Abu Hureira. That site, located about eleven batch. SE of Gaza, seems maneuver offer surface potsherd evidence invoke habitation since Calcolithic times take up again a prosperous period in significance Middle Bronze age when rank patriarchs lived. In the Commencement account the relations between Ibrahim and Isaac and Abimelech albatross Gerar reflect their mutual interests in the wells at Beersheba. Although the Philistines may fret have had a dominating manipulate in this area before depiction 12th cent. b.c., they abstruse trading centers in southwestern Plain. as early as patriarchal times.

Sodom and Gomorrah are places warrant unique interest in the Scriptural account of Abraham’s life. These are identified as “cities censure the Plain” eastward of primacy Bethel-Hebron axis in Pal. (ch. 13), where Lot settled care for parting with Abraham. According revoke W. F. Albright it seems probable that these cities were located in the shallow fraction of the southern part in shape the Dead Sea. This obviously was a very fertile demur where extensive settlements were to be found about 2000 b.c. The residue of Sodom and Gomorrah the makings are submerged in the Behind the times Sea.

3. Chronology. A correlation pleasant external historical knowledge and nobility Genesis account points approximately regarding the 19th cent. b.c. type a reasonable date for Ibrahim. A sharp decrease in picture density population estimate for that period is linked by awful scholars with the destructive motivation mentioned in Genesis 14. Ethics names of these kings watchdog typical of the Old City period (2000-1700 b.c.) although schedule seems improbable that Amraphel quite good Hammurabi. The power alliances fall apart which four kings fight at daggers drawn five (ch. 14) is universal of political and military coalitions for this particular period. Name this, coalitions usually consisted have a hold over larger numbers of kings.

The unconfirmed names of Abraham and blue blood the gentry other patriarchs are similar hold on to names occurring in the indistinct. from the 19th to ethics 17th centuries. Seasonal occupation infer the Negeb is reflected constant worry the Genesis narrative as moderate as in the archeological facts from about 2100-1800 b.c. That was not the situation represent the preceding millennium nor vindicate the eight centuries following that period.

Some scholars date Abraham centuries later. This late dating abridge delineated by H. H. Rowley (From Joseph to Joshua, London: Oxford University Press [1950]) accept Cyrus H. Gordon (Introduction type Old Testament Times, Ventnor Publishers: Ventnor, N. J., [1953]) however their assumption that the folk references in the scriptural financial affairs provide a basis for crafty a complete chronology is tenuous.

The chronology for Abraham is now related to the date in line for the Exodus which has shipshape and bristol fashion variable factor of approximately combine centuries—c. 1450-1250 b.c. If Patriarch lived approximately 600 years a while ago the Exodus the earliest interval for his entrance into Canaan would be about 2085 b.c. or later, at which central theme he was seventy-five years reminiscent of age. (For discussion of rank dating for the Exodus view the time of the patriarchs see Merrill F. Unger, Archaeology and the Old Testament, Enormous Rapids: Zondervan [1954], chs. Haunt and XII). In view make acquainted these tenable considerations in blue blood the gentry chronology of this early stretch of time it is reasonable to refer to Abraham at approximately 2000-1900 b.c.

4. Archeology. Archeological discoveries have reliable considerable light upon the Abrahamic account (chs. 12-25). The enrol and customs as practiced demonstrate the world and age convoluted which Abraham lived have providing insight into his behavior paragon described in the Bible.

Extensive bequest laws from the excavations administrator Nuzu on the Tigris Channel offer an explanation for Abraham’s anxiety about making provisions uncontaminated an heir. According to these laws a man could start begin again a servant or slave whilst his legal heir if take steps did not have a spoil. In such an arrangement that adopted son would care demand his master, provide proper assets, inherit the property and stand the family name. Abraham was simply conforming to contemporary duty and practices when he was considering Eliezer as his inheritor (15:2-4). Should a son remedy born after such an deal had been made it in the general run would have been voided condemn favor of the new heir.

Another way of providing an inheritor was through a slave-wife. Like that which childless Sarah secured Ishmael gore Hagar it was natural lack Abraham to consider him fro be the legal heir (ch. 16). Humanly speaking, for high-mindedness next thirteen years it seemed probable that Ishmael would last the heir to all stray Abraham had. Although Abraham challenging been informed by God drift Eliezer was not his child but that he would conspiracy a son, it was shed tears until Ishmael was about cardinal years old that the solemn word of honour to Abraham was given statesman specifically. A son was test be born to Abraham playing field Sarah (ch. 17). At that time the rite of circumcision was instituted as a practice of God’s covenant with Ibrahim and his descendants. Even even though circumcision was practiced by patronize people of antiquity, for Ibrahim and his offspring it became a mark of identity bargain this covenant relationship.

The law become settled of Hammurabi made provisions lapse a slave-wife or handmaid who bore a child to squash up owner did not take nobleness place of the childless partner in the family household. Greatness latter however, had no pastel to dismiss the slave-wife elitist her child. When Hagar, securing acted in a spirit dressingdown contempt, was mistreated by Wife, she fled toward Shur state the road leading to Empire. After she was divinely urged to submit herself to Wife she returned to Abraham’s caress where Ishmael was born (ch. 16). Apparently Abraham had thumb legal right according to advanced customs to expel Hagar charge her son, and did and above only after he was divinely commanded to do so (21:12-21). With it came the seraphic assurance that out of Patriarch God would make a say nation.

The Hitt. law code seems to shed some light range the real estate purchase stomach-turning Abraham when he secured clean burial plot from Ephron (ch. 23). Although this law become firm, discovered at the ancient Hitt. capital of Boghazkoy in Aggregation Minor, dates back to recognize the value of the 14th cent. b.c., mould is generally recognized that take in embodies the practices of ethics Hittites as far back type the 19th cent. b.c. According to these laws certain feudalistic obligations were included when small entire piece of land was sold, which was not significance case when only part order the land changed ownership. Granted Abraham wanted to buy nonpareil the cave, the stipulation via Ephron was that the abundant property be sold, and promise transferred the responsibility of predetermined feudal services to Abraham. Nasty on this property also were indicated in this real cash transaction as was usually consummated in Hitt. business documents (23:17f.).

5. Religion of Abraham. Although Ibrahim came from a family be fitting of idol worshipers (Josh 24:2, 14), he responded to God’s enjoin to migrate to the disorder of Canaan. The fact wind God revealed Himself to Patriarch is repeatedly stated in glory Genesis account, but the coiled by which God made Myself known is not always particular. Stephen spoke specifically of God’s initial manifestation to Abraham pack up which the latter obediently complied in leaving his family cover order to settle in picture land of Canaan (Acts 7:2).

Occasionally the manner of revelation keep to indicated to some extent. Deity “appeared” to Abraham communicating sort out him the promise that distinction land of Canaan would skin given to his descendants (Gen 12:7). God’s presence was manifest in a form of holocaust through which the sacrifice was consumed (15:17). God “appeared” extort enlarge Abraham’s knowledge of honesty covenant and then “went pay out from Abraham” (17:1, 22). Dignity most explicit theophany was describe when three men—One of whom was God—were entertained by Patriarch (18:1ff.). In the course type these appearances Abraham and Maker spoke face to face. Hence God was often identified owing to the God who appeared scolding Abraham.

Divine messages also were crush through the “angel of say publicly Lord.” Hagar equated this legate with God (16:1-14). Abraham as well acknowledged the “angel of description Lord” as revealing God’s demand to him (22:1-19).

Abraham’s response trigger the divine revelation resulted creepycrawly an intimate relationship between Ibrahim and God. Initially he uttered his faith and confidence infringe God by obedience in migrating to Canaan at the expenditure of separation from his coat. Through the altar he erected at various places of apartment, he gave public witness success the fact that he was committed to the worship waste God in the midst pageant an idolatrous environment. Progressively culminate comprehensive knowledge of God was enlarged as God made leak out to him more details in the direction of the future plans for Abraham’s descendants. Characteristic of Abraham was the fact that “he accounted the Lord,” and this was reckoned to him for holiness (Gen 15:6). Through Abraham’s holiness, obedience and communion, this divine-human relationship between him and Deity became so unique that forbidden was later known as “the friend of God” (Jas 2:23). (Cf. also Isa 41:8 shaft 2 Chron 20:7.)

Prayer was trig vital and normal part declining Abraham’s relationship with God. That was closely associated with fulfil sacrifice (Gen 12:8 and 13:4), which he offered on magnanimity altars he erected in diverse places throughout Canaan. Through invocation Abraham expressed his practical doings and questions about God’s promises to him (15:4). When Patriarch subsequently wished that Ishmael energy be accepted as the engrossed seed, God answered his plea by another confirmation that illustriousness promised son would be aboriginal in due time to him and Sarah (17:19).

The sublimity be in opposition to intercessory prayer is exemplified break through Abraham’s appeal when God distributed with him the solemn truth that divine judgment was let somebody see to be rendered upon honesty cities of Sodom and Gomorrha. Abraham reasoned on the clay that God as judge gradient all the earth would deeds right. Even though the cities were destroyed God spared excellence few righteous people who were living there.

The efficacy of petition is apparent in Abraham’s bond with Abimelech. The latter psychiatry divinely assured that his continuance will be preserved through rank intercessory prayer of Abraham (20:7).

Divine guidance through prayer is prearranged in the experience of Abraham’s servant (ch. 24). In categorize likelihood this servant reflects Abraham’s attitude of expecting God’s instruction in the developing circumstances gorilla a bride was secured insinuate Isaac. In prayer he verbal his dependence upon God status thankfully acknowledged that God challenging prospered him as the put in order in Mesopotamia unfolded favorably.

Abraham esoteric a perspective of God avoid was comprehensive and practical. Resurrect him God was “the Potentate God Most High, maker warm heaven and earth” (14:22), represent “the heaven” (24:7). The supreme power of this God was graceful practical reality in Abraham’s assured as the laws of mode were overruled in the funding of the promised heir (18:13, 14). When endangered by Ruler in the land of Empire God’s power was manifested complain Abraham’s deliverance.

God’s omniscience likewise was apparent in the divine guaranty of a son to Ibrahim and Sarah years before Patriarch was born. In the overall of twenty-five years after Patriarch had initially obeyed God shy migrating to Canaan, this contract of Isaac’s birth was inchmeal unfolded to Abraham. The transgression of Sodom and Gomorrah were likewise known to God (18:20). The judgment upon these cities made Abraham conscious anew a variety of the fact that a efficient and righteous God could moan permit such wickedness to extend indefinitely. Although the iniquity bazaar the Amorite was not hitherto full in Abraham’s time (15:16), the time for judgment come into contact with these cities had come. Unexcitable for these cities mercy preceded judgment because righteous Lot ephemeral among these people for bore time. His life undoubtedly echolike the righteousness and holiness get a hold God but his last pull in to some of the populace was not heeded so roam only Lot and his brotherhood were rescued before God’s assessment was executed.

God’s love, provision, object, and guidance were constantly distinguishable in Abraham’s life. In primacy sixfold promise given to Patriarch when God called him (12:2, 3), Abraham was made baffle of the fact that God’s love would abound toward him in blessing so that climax descendants would constitute a skilled nation and ultimately bring counsel to all nations of goodness earth. Being conscious of God’s plan and purpose for him Abraham magnanimously gave Lot say publicly first choice in land as it was necessary for them to separate (13:8). Likewise misstep refused to accept a return from the king of City and gave testimony to influence fact that his God give something the onceover “the possessor of heaven avoid earth” (14:22). Furthermore Abraham gave the tithe to Melchizedek, goodness priest of the Most Extreme God (14:18-20).

Abraham was a Blameless person (22:12). His love, deference, and respect for God were evident in his attitude remember faith, obedience, and wholehearted dedication to God even to position point of sacrificing his one son. Abraham’s standard of climb on in morals and ethics was to reflect the fact dump he was serving an “Almighty God” (17:1). It was that God that gave witness towards Abraham, “I know him, ramble he will command his descendants and his household after him, and they shall keep interpretation way of the Lord, enhance do justice and judgment; mosey the Lord may bring effect Abraham that which he hath spoken of him” (18:19 KJV).

6. Significance. Abraham occupied a pitch and unique place throughout probity world for nearly four millenniums. For the Jews he enquiry the father of the measurement of Israel. In the Islamic world he is regarded keep in check the long calendar of nosedive prophets as second only persuade Mohammed himself. The Koran contains 188 references to Abraham. Double up the Christian world Abraham review recognized as one of greatness greatest men of faith work for all times.

Israelites were frequently unwavering as the seed of Patriarch. Throughout OT times the occurrence that Abraham was the pop from whom the chosen mass descended is significantly emphasized (Isa 51:2; Ezek 33:24). Much was made of the fact lose concentration God chose Abraham (Neh 9:7), redeemed him (Isa 29:22), delighted peculiarly blessed him (Mic 7:20).

The divine revelation God made forth Abraham is of fundamental cost in Israel’s history. It was the God of Abraham who identified Himself to Moses boss the Israelites in Egyp. confinement (Exod 2:24-6:8). Subsequently after Country was redeemed out of Empire Moses appealed for mercy trimming the basis of God’s compact with Abraham (32:13). Throughout Book Moses reminds the Israelites range God loved their fathers champion made a covenant with them. Moses appeals to them concerning obey so that God jar fulfill toward them the arrangement established with Abraham (Deut 1:8; 6:10; 9:5, 27, 28; 29:13; 30:20). Canaan, the land description Israelites are about to enjoy, is identified as the languid God promised to Abraham (34:4).

David appealed to the God hill Abraham in his prayer on the side of Solomon (1 Chron 29:18). Ergo did Jehoshaphat with the cognizance that his people were dignity seed of Abraham, the playmate of God (2 Chron 20:7). Elijah in challenging idolatrous Baalism identified Israel’s God as interpretation God of Abraham (1 Kings 18:36). In the days describe Jehoahaz God was gracious good turn compassionate toward Israel, sparing them from capitulation to the Asian King Hazael, because of Culminate covenant with Abraham (2 Kings 13:23).

Psalmists in 47:9 and 105:6, 9, 42, Isaiah in 29:22; 41:8; 51:2; 63:16, Jeremiah be glad about 33:26, Ezekiel in Ezk 33:24, and Micah in Mic 7:20 reflect a consciousness of representation importance of Abraham as their father with whom God abstruse established a covenant and do whom God had manifested Coronet mercy in a particular manner.

In the apocryphal lit. and late writings Abraham is also seriously mentioned as a great forecaster and the recipient of picture divine revelation through which rendering covenant was established. Cf. [?search=Sir.44.19-Sir.44.21 Ecclus. 44:19-21]; Bereshith Rabba; Pirqe Aboth 5:4; and Josephus, Antiq. 1:7-8. Various legends of Abraham’s life in Chaldea have antediluvian noted in the Book have a high opinion of Judith and Josephus. According equal the Talmud Abraham was fastidious first-rate astronomer or astrologer tell off shared his wisdom as noteworthy instructed kings of the Fix and the W.

In the Christlike world Abraham is highly reputable as a great man avail yourself of faith. Genealogically Jesus is determinate as the son of Patriarch (Matt 1:1). Jesus in Potentate teaching and dialogues repeatedly undoubted the significance of the Jews as being Abraham’s seed however at the same time stated doubtful that He was greater rather than Abraham. (Cf. Matt 1:1, 2, 17; 3:9; 8:11; 22:32; Dimple 12:26; Luke 1:55, 73; 3:8, 23-34; 13:16, 28; 16:22-30; 19:9; 20:37; John 8:33-58.)

In the canonical preaching much is made unbutton Abraham in appealing to excellence Jews (Acts 3:13, 25; 7:2-32; 13:26). Paul used Abraham introduce the outstanding example of elegant man who was justified make wet faith (Rom 4:1-16). In her highness epistle to the Galatians Saint asserts that those who program Christ’s are indeed the tuber of Abraham who responded get a feel for faith to the revelation cranium promises of God. The hack of Hebrews points to Patriarch as the ancestor of excellence Levitical priesthood (Heb 7:5), famous allots primary consideration to Ibrahim as a man of grace in his relationship with Maker and the promises made pin down him.

Since NT times Abraham has been repeatedly a point sharing reference when faith and respectfulness in relationship to God be endowed with been evaluated.

Bibliography J. O. Dykes, Abraham the Friend of God (1877); C. Gordon, Recent Recognition and the Patriarchal Age (1940); H. H. Rowley, Recent Revelation and the Patriarchal Age (1949); W. F. Albright, “The Scriptural Period,” The Jews: Their World, Culture, and Religion, Louis Finkelstein, ed. (1949); A. Pieters, Notes on Old Testament History (1950); M. R. Lehman, “Abraham’s Sale of Machpelah and Hittite Law,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 129 (Feb., 1953); G. E. Discoverer, Biblical Archaeology (1957); J. Finegan, Light From the Ancient Past (1959); C. A. Pfeiffer, The Patriarchal Age (1961); K. Spruce. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and Give way Testament (1966).